Philosophy: lecture notes. Essay “Game is like knowledge of the world Game knowledge

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What are the games for children?

Movable, aimed at physical development, improving coordination and knowledge of one's own body. With sufficient use of games of this type, the child receives a healthy load, and also joins the sport.
Cognitive, aimed at observation and experimentation with toys and materials. Developing an understanding of the functions and importance of surrounding objects.
Creative, direction to develop the child's abilities, create new objects and works of art.

The development of self-confidence through the understanding that the child can do something on his own.

Active knowledge of the world around the child

In addition to the game knowledge of the world around, an essential role in the formation of the child's personality is played by actions aimed at solving any practical problem. Active knowledge of the surrounding world at the age of up to 2 years passes through destructive behavior, which is expressed in the desire to know everything from the inside and by touch. Children tend to break everything, disassemble and change the shape.

Already after two years, active knowledge of the surrounding world begins to develop along the path of creation. Interest begins to cause the creation of a new object from parts, the identification of qualities and properties when they are combined and mixed.

An excellent help to a child in active knowledge of the world is to accustom him from a young age to physical labor aimed at transforming the surrounding reality. Let your child help you with housework. Already at 4-5 years old, the baby may have his personal responsibilities. It could be setting the table for dinner, or picking up your own toys and getting the room ready for bed. The presence of compulsory classes, which are not difficult to fulfill, allows you to instill commitment and responsibility in the child.

Familiarization with surrounding nature through work, it allows the child to understand the basic laws of life and to be imbued with warm feelings for the world around him. Let me help you with gardening or housekeeping. indoor plants. First, show and tell what you are doing.

At 2 or 3 years of age, your child may be asked to help you with simple ways plant care. At 4-5 years old, you can invite the child to choose his own flower, which he must look after. This will help to instill in the child a sense of responsibility for someone, the need for regular actions will teach them to work.

Separately, it should be noted the positive impact that has on the development of the child, communication with animals and caring for them. Watching representatives of the animal world, their relationships, studying the characteristics of specific species, the child comprehends a huge amount of information about the world and its diversity. The presence of pets contributes to the formation of a caring attitude and kindness towards other living beings.

Our adult life and behavior is a reflection of our childhood and the environment that was around us every day. The acceptance or rejection of the world laid down by our parents is a fundamental factor in the success of a particular person.

We live in a vast world filled with many interesting, complex, and sometimes even mysterious things. And it is unlikely that in the coming decades, and even centuries, these secrets will be comprehended by mankind. But one of these mysteries is the person himself - as a person, as an individual. Each of us is unique in our own way, but not only “mother nature” “had a hand in this”, because the main distinguishing features - character, behavior, interests, lifestyle and attitude towards it - are not given at birth, but are acquired gradually, starting to be fundamentally laid down already in childhood. And naturally an important factor that can influence the development of a person from an early age is the game. With the help of it, the child learns the complex, incomprehensible world around him and, plunging into it, eventually begins to realize himself in this world. During the game, memory develops, both mechanical, that is, coordinating movements, and visual, as the ability to perceive the difference in surrounding objects and the variety of their colors. The process itself is quite an entertaining activity for the child. After all, it is in a playful way that we are taught from an early age to distinguish between letters and numbers, to name colors, to count - and after that, for a correctly guessed letter, a reward follows, for example, in the form of a candy. The child, of course, wants to “win” and get the coveted prize.

However, in addition to children's games, there are also sports, board, logical ones - suitable for all people, regardless of their age. They are undoubtedly very interesting and can not only distract a person from worries Everyday life, but also to force them to take an active part in collective gaming communication. Since ancient times, a person who is one step below the current generation of people in many factors - came up with games as a kind of activity. And the most striking example is the very ancient ones, the Olympic Games, but I will talk about them in more detail a little later.

But since this is a world of "individuals", I want to pay more attention to the very basis of its foundations - to children, and to their games. After all, often an adult, a parent, is faced with the question of what, what games to play, to interest a child. Its content remains unchanged throughout life. Only the answer to it changes, that is, the result itself. And believe that for a person who does not know anything about games, it will not be quite easy.

I believe that this work is able to answer many such questions, including "what is a game?", "Where did the first games appear?", and "What games do children play?" It can help adults understand children, their mores and gaming preferences. This is facilitated by the survey conducted - a kind of survey on the topic “What does the game mean in your life?”, The results of which I have given a little lower, drawing my conclusions on them. So get ready to hear everything about the game - an important and necessary detail of the development of all mankind at all times.

What is a game?

The game is a kind of cultural human activity. Our childhood is permeated with games, through them we get to know the world around us, learn to interact with complex reality. Practically from the first moments of its inception, the game acts as a form of learning in order to develop the necessary human traits, qualities, skills, habits, and develop abilities. The game is one of the main types of human activity, along with work and learning. She appeared in his life from time immemorial and is still not fully solved. The game is present in a person's life all the time, at all stages of his life. It is difficult to overestimate the role of play in childhood. The game is the leading activity of the child. For an adult, the game is also of great importance. The game has always captivated and attracted people.

ancient games.

Primitive people actively comprehended the world around them, and they could not do without game forms. This period in the history of mankind is similar to the childhood of each individual person. There are too many incomprehensible and inexplicable things around, there is still no knowledge to perceive the world analytically, therefore the only possible model for understanding the world is a game. Thus, the game in primitive society was a much more important form of existence than for subsequent eras. After all, when the world became more or less ordered and explained, the “time of a serious life” came - and the function of entertainment and recreation was assigned to the game.

Many games, known and popular to this day, originated in prehistoric times as ritual, mystical activities.

In the games of primitive people, the beginnings of different types of arts were merged: poetry, music, dance, theatrical action. And only then, millennia later, these activities began to develop independently.

gladiators.

One of the clearest examples of the extent and seriousness of the consequences of adult games is the culture of gladiator fights.

Gladiators - fighters who fought in the arena for the entertainment of spectators - often remained there, leaving the battlefield “on the shield”. The Roman public was very fond of "games in earnest", as a result of which people died, and did not miss the opportunity to put pressure on the rulers to hold a new performance.

Perhaps the largest and bloodiest game in history is the scene of a naval battle (naumachia), played out on the orders of Emperor Claudius in the 1st century AD. e. , in which the famous naval battle of the Rhodes and Sicilian fleets was staged. The water of the lake in which the battle took place turned red, and this is by no means a literary metaphor.

The scope of this performance makes it clear how serious the “Roman folk game” of gladiators was. And it confirms that in world history it often happened that adults flirted much more than children.

Olympic Games.

I think that not to touch on the topic of the Olympic Games is to deprive my work of zest.

Olympic Games Ancient Greece were a religious and sports festival held in Olympia. Information about the origin of the games is lost, but several legends have survived describing this event. One of the oldest is the legend of Pelops. Other legends claim that in Olympia, near the tomb of Cronus, the father of Zeus, a running competition took place. And as if they were organized by Zeus himself, who thus celebrated the victory over his father, which made him the ruler of the world.

But perhaps the most popular in antiquity was the legend that Pindar mentions in his songs in honor of the winners of the Olympic Games. According to this legend, the Games were founded by Hercules.

The appearance of the Olympic Games dates back to the 9th century BC. e. In those days, heavy wars ravaged the Greek states. Ifit - the king of Elis, a small Greek state, on whose territory Olympia is located, in order to prove his peace-loving, establishes the "athletic Games". Hence their name is the Olympic Games. This happened in 884 BC.

Thus a custom was established in Greece, according to which, every four years, in the midst of internecine wars, everyone put their weapons aside and went to Olympia to admire the harmoniously developed athletes and praise the gods.

The Olympic Games essentially lost their importance with the advent of the Romans. After Christianity became the official religion, the games began to be seen as a manifestation of paganism, and in 394 A.D. e. they were banned by the emperor Theodosius.

In 1766, as a result of archaeological excavations in Olympia, sports and temple buildings. In 1875, archaeological research and excavations continued under German leadership.

The desire to revive the Olympic mindset and culture spread fairly quickly throughout Europe. The French baron Pierre de Coubertin said then: “Germany unearthed what was left of ancient Olympia. Why can't France restore its old grandeur?

At the same time, Pierre de Coubertin wanted to overcome national selfishness and contribute to the struggle for peace and international understanding. The Youth of the World was to face off in sports, not on the battlefield.

At a congress held June 16-23, 1894 at the Sorbonne (University of Paris), he presented his thoughts and ideas to the international public. On the last day of the congress (June 23), it was decided that the first modern Olympic Games should be held in 1896 in

Athens, in the parent country of the Games - Greece. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was founded to organize the Games. The first president of the Committee was the Greek Demetrius Vikelas, who was president until the end of the 1st Olympic Games in 1896. Baron Pierre de Coubertin became general secretary.

The first Games of our time were indeed a great success.

The venue of the Olympics is chosen by the IOC, the right to organize them is granted to the city, not the country. The Olympic movement has its own emblem and flag, approved by the IOC at the suggestion of Coubertin in 1913. The emblem is the Olympic rings. The motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius (faster, higher, stronger). The flag - a white cloth with the Olympic rings, has been raised at all the Games since 1920.

The title of Olympic champion is the most honorable and desirable in the career of an athlete in those sports in which Olympic tournaments are held. The exception is football, because the title of world champion in this sport is much more prestigious.

Volleyball.

Since I started talking about the Olympic Games, I want to dwell in more detail on one of the Olympic game sports - volleyball. Many in our school are fond of this outdoor game, which helps to develop coordination of movements, dexterity, jumping ability, and also this team game and the coherence of each of the players, the charge to achieve results are good qualities that will be useful to us in life, because wherever we are Turned out it was all a team.

Volleyball is a common entertainment and way of recreation due to the simplicity of the rules and the availability of equipment (ball).

Two teams compete on a special court, divided by a net, trying to send the ball to the opponent's side in such a way that it lands on the opponent's court, or a player of the defending team makes a mistake. In this case, players of one team are allowed no more than three touches of the ball in a row.

Volleyball has been an Olympic sport since 1964. There are numerous variations of volleyball: beach volleyball, mini volleyball, park volleyball and even pionerball is a variation of volleyball.

The inventor of volleyball is considered to be William J. Morgan, a teacher of physical education at the Young Christian Association College in Holyoke.

The basic rules of the game were formed in 1915-25. In 1922, the first nationwide competitions were held in Brooklyn. At the same time, the basketball and volleyball federation was formed.

Since 2006, the FIVB has united 219 national volleyball federations, volleyball is one of the most popular sports on Earth. Theatre.

We often hear or use the quote by W. Shakespeare "The whole world is a theater, and the people in it are actors" But we never think about its meaning. I think it would be pointless not to talk about the theater and the acting in it.

Theater is an incomparable art, its specificity lies in the depiction of events that seem to take place directly in front of the viewer; the viewer becomes their witness and accomplice, which determines the special power of the ideological and emotional impact of the theater. Years, centuries pass, and the theater remains the most beloved and sought-after art form.

According to the types of actions of the actor during the performance, the following types of theaters are distinguished:

Dramatic

Operatic

Pantomime

Operetta

Children's

Puppet

poetry theater

dance theater

Shadow play

Animal theater

theater of the absurd

parody theater

Song Theater

variety theater

One Actor Theater

street theater

And who would have thought that today's beautiful theater began with buffoonery.

Folk games reflect the culture and mentality of the nation, therefore, they undergo significant changes under the influence of economic, social, political, and other processes. No matter how the gameplay is built, and no matter how complex or simple the rules are, the game remains not only entertainment or physical training, but also a means of psychological preparation for future life situations. Without it, the formation of a person as a full-fledged personality is not conceivable. And the culture of the Slavs is one of the best examples, because it is one of the richest in the world in terms of the number and variety of folk games. In Russia, they knew how to work and have fun.

Slavic folk games are self-sufficient works of folk art, created and honed by dozens of generations of our ancestors, and incorporating the experience of the people.

It is unlikely that we have ever seriously thought about who and when made the first snowball, who invented sledding down the hill; or how old are the “Cossack robbers”. These games have lived with us since childhood and were taken for granted by us. But almost all active children's games have their own history, which is closely intertwined with the history of our country, we just do not pay attention to it. If you take a closer look at the emergence, history and development of folk games, you can see that the games themselves did not arise from scratch, but real events, both everyday and cultural and historical, served as a prototype for them. Sports go well with intellectual! For convenience of consideration, folk games can be divided into several types:

Games that reflect the daily activities and life of our ancestors.

Games on religious and cult motives.

Games for resourcefulness, speed and coordination.

Games of strength and skill.

War games.

It should be noted that this division is very conditional and does not set itself the goal of necessarily driving all games into a certain classification framework. It is quite possible that some of the folk games presented below will fit into several categories at once.

Games that reflect the relationship between man and nature.

Human life in the old days was much more closely connected with nature than it is today. It is natural that this connection is reflected in the culture, customs, traditions and holidays of the Slavic peoples. Children, in their desire to imitate adults in their affairs, did the same in a playful way. Thus, a whole layer of games arose - games that reflect the relationship of man to Nature. In many of them, forest predators - a bear, a wolf, a fox - are the main characters.

Hunting, fishing, crafts, everyday scenes and much more that make up the daily activities of people in the old days have come down to our days in numerous reflection games.

Barkers

The gameplay itself is not conceivable without prelude. Pre-game barkers, as a method of gathering participants in a future joint game with the help of a special chants, has a long tradition. Barkers were used as an initiation, calling potential participants to the game.

The call to the game was accompanied by bouncing in place or in a circle, and the one who uttered them had to stretch his hand forward with the thumb bent. Those who wanted to play had to grab the barker by the finger with their fist and, in turn, bend their thumb. All this time, the barker was pronouncing the verdict indicating the name of the game. When a sufficient number of players were recruited, the barker finished the recruitment.

Rhythm

The counting room is an integral part of the children's game at all times.

When creating them, children often use motifs and images of lullabies, jokes, round dance, dance, comic songs, ditties and other genres of folklore, adapting them to new game tasks. From the source texts, what attracts attention is selected by the play of sounds or the unusualness of the situation, and everything superfluous is removed, which gives dynamics to this plot action. Rhymes can start as riddles.

The lot in the gaming tradition performs the function of higher justice. When distributing game roles, everyone is obliged to obey unquestioningly to his decision. Usually the draw is for those games in which there are two teams.

Of course, not all of today's teenagers play folk games - there are enough other entertainments. Many people just don't know what it is. But don't lose folk traditions, to preserve original games for future generations is one of the most important goals of our culture, because it was with games that our ancestors raised strong, dexterous, wise and brave people.

Lapta amused people more and more in Russia - in Russia, probably, few people play it. Very few people can remember the rules for sure. After repeatedly reading the rules of the game, only one thing became clear to me: I would never be able to play rounders. Simply because I will never learn the rules. Yes, and it will be difficult to find a company for this game: 30 people who know how to play rounders are not lying on the road.

Much easier, for example, hide and seek - a game for all time! You don't even need to explain the rules. Moreover, it should be noted that this game is suitable for all ages. If you dig deeper, you can find many "hide and seek" analogues, evolved hybrids, so to speak. For example, blind man's buff is also a rather old game: run away from an unfortunate blindfolded comrade.

Or here's another, for example, tags - also from the same series.

In general, all these outdoor games are quite the same type, but, nevertheless, one of the most popular among children of primary and school age. By the way, even adults sometimes play pranks so that they play hide-and-seek, and tag, and God knows what else.

In general, it must be said that there are a great many Russian entertainment games. I remember as a child what we just did not play! In all of the above (except for the bast shoes, of course) plus in all sorts of different rubber bands, skipping ropes, “above the legs from the ground”, “fishermen and fish”, “stream”, “paints”, “sajo”, “the car goes-goes-stop” , "Cossacks-robbers" and much, much more

By the way, about the Cossacks-robbers The game is quite old, so old that they have already begun to forget it. Except that in summer camps it is still played with the same heat. Now (or rather, a few years ago) something like a logical continuation of this entertaining "walker-climbing" has appeared. An adapted interactive version based on the good old Cossack robbers. If anyone does not know, then this game is called Encounter or, in the common people, "fight". It resembles something like a computer walker with different puzzles and keys, only here you are no longer the master of the joystick, but a direct participant in the action. By the way, you can also participate in different ways: either you are an organizer or a player.

We have more Mind games, migrated from past centuries. For example, checkers are not exactly the height of intelligence, but you also can’t jump into rubber bands. Even the heroes of Gogol's "Dead Souls" amused themselves with this game, which was quite firmly established in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.

I think, wake up any Russian person in the middle of the night - he will explain to you what these checkers are.

However, it is necessary to pay tribute to checkers. It is one of the few games that is now a sport.

If we are already talking about cells, then we cannot pass by a game that is much more intellectual and no less ancient. Its essence is to, with the help of again white and black pieces and a board of 64 cells, checkmate the opponent's king. Of course, this is chess. Here things are more complicated than in checkers. If, for example, you wake up the same Russian person in the middle of the night and ask him what chess is and how to play it, then he may remember about the board and pieces, but most likely he will not explain how to play .

I confess that I know more and even played this unpretentious game with my grandfather many times, but still I cannot say with complete certainty that I can play chess. Still, if you, like Ostap Bender, shamefully call the queen "queen", then you have nothing to do in this game. Play checkers. Or there is another option - cards.

This is the game of all time! On cold winter evenings by the stove, on the train, on the hot southern coast, at home at the table or even just on a bench in the park, people do it. They play cards.

In general, of course, cards are not a game, but rather a common name for the entire endless mass of games that have been invented over the long years of the existence of the above-mentioned cards. A fool, a point, a drunkard, a witch, I believe - I don’t believe, a goat, solitaire, a thousand, a nine, a king, a moron, but you never know what else. And here, too, there is a certain division: games for everyone and for “everywhere” and deeper ones, for a narrow circle of craftsmen, for green cloth tables with subdued light above them, in a word, elite. The latter include bridge, poker, marriage and preference.

Life does not stand still, and progress does its simple work, so who knows what we will be playing in a few decades. However, remembering what our ancestors played is always interesting and instructive.

Then, as we understand, it became easier with games in Russia, and now we can only rejoice for the still not very boring life of our predecessors

Games 40-60s.

In the 1940s and 1950s, the dodgeball game was very popular.

Another game that old-timers remember with pleasure is called “Master and Journeyman”.

In the post-war years, the game of gorodki became popular. And now interest in it does not disappear.

Until the end of the 60s, not only boys, but also girls played "war". They invented the conditions of the game themselves, but everywhere they “armed themselves” with toy pistols, machine guns, imitated battle scenes. Classics were the favorite game for girls at all times. The number of players is not limited. A wide variety of classics are known.

For more than 50 years, the game "The Sea is worried" has been living in our area. In all likelihood, the game came to us from the south of Russia. This game is successfully accepted by the children at our school evenings, it is very mobile and fun.

A large number of children's games with toys are known. For a long time even the most ancient writers paid serious attention to children's toys: Architas, Aristotle, Lafaret and others. In addition, archaeologists have unearthed many ancient graves and cemeteries, in which various kinds of rattles and balls were found.

The boys of the pre-war years ran with a hoop. Hoop is the oldest game known to many nations. They played one or two. The hoop was chased by a stick. The skill was to run without dropping the hoop.

Girls have always played with dolls. They imagined their dolls as real people: they dressed them, forced them to lead a human lifestyle: eat, sleep, talk, go to church, cook, celebrate holidays - in a word, repeat what the children saw at home or in the village life surrounding them. The girls talked to the dolls, sang, cried.

Yard games of modern children

I have long been attracted to the games of modern children. You go home from school or just walk, look, the children play, it seems, just like I did in my childhood, but not all of their games repeat the games of my childhood. Here are some examples of such games: black rose, bananas, bamboo, spider and fly, bunny, vampire, etc. There is a universal rule for all these games. Any player can stop playing by saying the phrase "bumps, bumps, I'm on a break."

As a child, I was very fond of playing board games with my grandmother, I especially loved Goose Step, my favorite goose was Puss in Boots. I could play it several times a day and in the end it was taped over many times. My little brother also likes to play this kind of games. And I am sure that many children will understand me, so what is a goose?

Goose-fun, which does not imply restrictions on the age and IQ of players, anyone can travel on a board or just a piece of paper, lined with a "path" in the form of a spiral - this is a classic of the genre. Later, the spiral was transformed into a stitch - a path of any intricate configuration, the main thing is that there should be a beginning and an end.

The rules of the game are simple: dice are thrown, a die with numbers, or a spinning top with numbers on the edges is launched. What is the number - so many moves, movements of chips, on the way to the finish line, to victory. However, not everything is so primitive, because the number can be happy, or maybe a brake, a return back, the loss of all previous steps. At present, the principles of the game have been cleverly adopted and improved by the creators of computer fancy actions.

How much rope does not twist

When there is neither chess at hand, nor even a worn deck of cards, you can try to play a rope game. Which is easy to find, at least pull out the lace from the sneakers. And what to do with this rope? Yes, anything: “cat's cradle”, “mesh”, “four diamonds”, “rug”, “fish on a platter” and even “Jacob's ladder”

Alone, it’s not so interesting to play the rope with pleasure and variety, someone must certainly remove the loops from your fingers, twist them in the right order and pass the move. With a stretch, but you can compare what is obtained through the correct combinational tangling of the rope with kaleidoscope patterns. But the kaleidoscope itself forms colored stained-glass windows, the person is given only the simplest control of the body of the magic cylinder, and the cord will have to work hard, using not only finger dexterity, accuracy, patience, but also spatial imagination, coupled with fantasy.

I think that we should not forget about the most fun game in my opinion - KVN.

Everyone in their life has seen this game on TV or participated in it at school. Many of the jokes that the participants in this game use, we quote in our daily life. KVN or the Club of the Cheerful and Resourceful are popular humorous games in which university teams (and not only) compete in humorous answers to questions asked, improvisations on given topics, acting out pre-prepared scenes, etc.

Many KVN participants, after completing their playing careers, became popular TV presenters by organizing their own humorous programs. Among them are Yuli Gusman, Oleg Filimonov, Valdis Pelsh, Alexei Kortnev, Sergei Sivokho, Tatyana Lazareva, Mikhail Shats, Sergei Belogolovtsev, Igor Kharlamov, Timur Batrutdinov, Mikhail Galustyan, Garik Martirosyan, Alexander Pushnoy, Gennady Khazanov.

Computer games.

According to the results of the survey at our school and the world ranking, now computer games are in the first place among children. Probably there is not a single person who at least once in his life has not played the so-called standard games on the computer, for example, Spider solitaire or Klondike solitaire, I think the rules should not be explained and everyone knows that. So what is a computer game?

A computer game is a computer program that serves to organize the game process, communicate with game partners, or itself acts as a partner. Computer games also include video games and mobile games. Currently, there are attempts to single out computer games as a separate area of art, along with theater, cinema, etc.

For some computer games, amateur and professional competitions are held. This kind of competition is called cybersport.

We talked about the fact that a video game belongs to computer games, and so a video game (Video game) is a computer game designed to run on a game console or slot machine.

The very first computer game was a rocket simulator created in 1942 by Thomas Goldsmith Jr. and Eastle Ray Menn.

Later, in 1952, there was a tic-tac-toe program created by A. S. Douglas as part of his doctoral dissertation at Cambridge University.

In 1962, Steve Russell wrote Space War and John's Big Adventure.

Development slot machines in the 1970s led to the so-called "Golden Age of Arcades". One of the most famous games of that time is "Pong". It seems that it was all recently, but how much more has it become and how much better both in terms of graphics and sound in games. We can only rejoice at technological progress.

Constructor.

Once, when I came to visit my 5-year-old brother, I saw that he was interested in putting together small details of the designer. I sat down to help him and did not notice how I was fascinated by building houses, funny little men out of seemingly nothing. Then I thought, for sure, many children like to play the constructor because it is not only a game, but also a training for the brain, then I got the idea to tell a little more about this game.

Lego is a series of toys that are constructors based on colored bricks, wheels, figures of people and other parts from which you can build models of almost anything. Cars, planes, ships, buildings, castles, sculptures, spaceships and even working robots - that's far from full list what can be assembled from Lego constructors.

Lego sets are produced by the Lego Group, headquartered in Denmark.

The company was founded in 1932 by the Dane Ole Kirk Christiansen.

Since its introduction in 1949, Lego elements, in all their variants, have remained compatible with each other. So, for example, elements created in 1963 still fit together with elements released in 2008, despite radical changes in the design and shape of the elements over the years. Lego sets for young children are compatible with sets for teenagers.

All parts of the Lego system are made with a given degree of accuracy. This ensures that the parts can be folded together using a certain force that is the same for all parts.

One of the popular hobbies is recreating short scenes from famous movies, using Lego bricks for furnishings and Lego figures as characters. Typically, such films use the "stop-motion" animation method.

And he will finish his report, I decided with a game of socks. My friends and I like to play this game at breaks at school, on the street or just in our free time. You can play it almost everywhere because a soft ball will not hurt anyone, that is, the game is not traumatic, and I think that it is useful to play this game because the leg muscles work no less than in football.

"Socks" is one of the varieties of the footbag game.

Also, one of the options for the origin of Sox is the old game "ZOSKA". It appeared in Russia back when we didn't know anything about foot bag discipline! Even our grandfathers played this exciting game, although its rules and the sox itself were significantly different from those that exist today.

The sox was then made of leather or skin, for example, bearskin, and it was filled with a heavy filler in the form of lead shot.

The rules of the game were simple to disgrace. At that time, the competition was only in who would fill the socks with their feet the most.

Then they forgot about Zoska and did not remember for a long time. After some time, the game returned, however, not in the same form as before. Soks began to be made, as it was said before, from socks, and stuffed with rice, peas, etc. etc. what was at hand.

Further, socks have already begun to improve, they have learned to knit and stuff them with more reliable, durable components with a better structure. The socks themselves have changed, but the name has already become stronger, like a sock, however, it didn’t quite sound, and it was remade in a foreign way - “Socks”, after which it began to be called already with our distorted transcription, like “SOKS”.

As such, this game has no rules. Usually people stand in a circle from 2 to infinity people and start stuffing the footbag, throwing it to each other in a chaotic manner. This game is not a sport and is only considered as a light pastime as opposed to freestyle footbag or no-game.

And of course, about the main thing - the etiquette of playing Sox

Do not spit in the circle of the game, as this may seem inappropriate.

Playing socks with your hands is considered bad form, so the socks are trying not to touch them.

Well, that's all, an interesting game and the rules are not complicated. When bored, I recommend playing this game.

Questionnaire statistics/

Guided by the above description of the types of games that differ in their purpose and position among the latter, I will introduce some data from a survey conducted at my school among students in grades 3-9, on the topic: "What does a game mean in your life." Highlighting the most important points of the survey, which should be paid attention to, I want to note, explaining separately, the following points:

Games played by our grandparents.

Modern children's games. Their direction.

Children's knowledge of ancient games.

Grandparents toys. Have they survived.

Storage areas for toys in the family.

According to the grandparents themselves, throughout their school years, the same football, tags, volleyball, towns, classics, hide and seek, leapfrog and even a simple ball game, in, it would seem, not so long ago, about the same time was devoted to passive games: chess, dominoes, loto , checkers and other board games. That is, we can say that the ratio of mobile and “quiet” (logic, board) games was almost the same, equal, without preponderance in any direction, caused by a general disposition to this type of gaming activity. This fact can be argued, for example, by the fact that in schools at that time, along with circles offering various types of sports activities, the same chess circles were created. And they, which is sometimes difficult to imagine now, found the same significant number of children who entered there as the football, athletics and figure skating sections.

At present, the interests and hardships of children have changed in many ways, which, according to the survey data, is also noticeable. And it turns out that the majority of students, when communicating with their peers and classmates, prefer only the most active games, rather than those that children play outside the school and the yard. In which children play at home in the family, for example with their parents. And this means that playing chess with friends, or some other logical passive games, is now not so attractive and interesting for children. This is facilitated by the emergence of more and more new yard games, the preference for which makes any “quiet” games not entertaining, even boring, and forces children to play them only in the family circle.

From a written survey of children, it follows that they play any games with their parents approximately in the lower grades, up to and including the 5th grade. And these are mostly logical (passive) games, such as checkers, chess, cards, dominoes. The lack of outdoor games between parents and children is, I think, such a philosophy of parents, which, perhaps, their parents preferred to engage in just such games. For example, playing dominoes with a child, or not playing with him at all, seems to be more familiar and ordinary for a parent (according to his own childhood) than playing ball with him. But if this is not there, then t will not follow further. And if it does, it's already too late, since the child, after a certain age period (according to our data, these are primary classes), stops playing any games with their parents at all. The interests of the child change, completely different concepts of what a game is are formed. Preference is given to computer games, they become more interesting than playing dominoes or chess. And those, in turn, leave the “arena of play activity”, being now something different for the child, sometimes not even a concept associated with play.

As for the knowledge of children about ancient games and, it follows that something about them, children know very, very little, referring only to the fact that “toys were wooden”, and “the games themselves are very different from those that are played today”. Several children mentioned that in those days there were outdoor games, to which they attributed the round dance and jumping over the fire. And indeed, after all, these folk amusements, in part, are also games and, of course, noticeably differ from modern games.

Most of the children surveyed keep a large number of toys at home. If these are not their toys, and if the child has already grown out of this, then these are, as a rule, the toys of younger brothers and sisters, who still give them a lot of joy and pleasure during the game. All these numerous toys (according to the results of the survey) lie in cabinets and on shelves, in all kinds of drawers and boxes. But only a few children still have the toys of their grandparents, who at one time played with great pleasure.

“They keep the memory”, “they are very dear to parents”, “they are ancient and fragile and beautiful” - that is why, according to the children themselves, these toys are kept in the house, that is why they are valuable and interesting. However, these are very valuable, and the rest of the toys also lie somewhere on a closet or in a chest of drawers and remember them, their “values” only when necessary, or accidentally during cleaning. Those of the toys that are on the shelves, parents use as decoration, representing the main value for their beauty. At home, many people can often see that toys are in some sideboards, on shelves in prominent places, others (soft toys, figurine toys) lie on the backs of chairs, are seated on the sofa, sit on cabinets. And this means that toys are also used not only by children, but also by adults, or rather, they are used as part of the interior: to decorate rooms, to give a solemn look to an apartment, to create a festive atmosphere - that is, accordingly, not for the game, but for other reasons, and to achieve completely different goals

Introduction

1. Essence and structure of the process of cognition.

2. Types of cognitive activity.

Introduction.

Among the most important worldview issues that philosophy has solved throughout its history, one of the central places was occupied by the problems of cognition. It is always important for a person to know what cognitive abilities he has: is he able to develop adequate knowledge that allows him to live and act in the real world? Are there any barriers to obtaining such adequate knowledge? What are the limits of cognitive activity or is the process of cognition unlimited? By what means is the cognitive process carried out? What is the specificity of scientific knowledge? We will try to answer these questions in this work.

This work does not pretend to be some new word in the theory of knowledge, most likely this essay is an attempt to systematize and generalize knowledge in this area.

1. The essence and structure of the process of cognition.

In rationalist philosophy, the problems of the theory of knowledge were considered from the point of view of the interaction of subject and object. However, even within the framework of the rationalist tradition, the interpretation of subject and object has changed significantly. In pre-Kantian philosophy, the subject of knowledge was understood as a single-formed being, a human individual (4, p. 222). Under the object is what his cognitive activity is directed to and what exists in his mind in the form of ideal mental structures. Kant reversed the relationship between subject and object and, in connection with this, gave them a different interpretation. In Kant's system, the versatility of the interaction between subject and object was realized. Representatives of the German classical philosophy revealed the ontological, epistemological, value, material and practical aspects of this interaction. In this regard, in German classical philosophy, the subject appears as a supra-individual developing system, the essence of which is active activity. Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel considered this activity, first of all, as a spiritual activity that generated objects (4, p. 223). For Marx and Engels, this activity had a material-sensual character, it was practical (2, p. 236). Subject and object appeared in Marx and Engels as sides of a practical relationship, practical activity. The subject is the bearer of a material purposeful action that connects him with the object. Object - the object on which the action is directed. Thus, in Marxism, human activity, practice acts as the most important side of the subject-object relationship.

The initial characteristic of the cognizing subject is activity, understood as a spontaneous, internally determined product of material or spiritual energy. An object is the subject of an activity application. Human activity is conscious in nature and, therefore, it is mediated by goal-setting and self-awareness. Free activity is supreme manifestation activity. Based on all these qualities, one can give such a definition of subject and object. The subject is an active, independent being, carrying out goal-setting and transformation of reality. The object is the sphere of application of the subject's activity (2, p. 238).

The difference between subject and object is relative. Subject and object are functional categories that mean the roles of various phenomena in certain situations of activity. An individual, for example, in some cases can act as a subject when he himself is actively acting. When others influence him, when he serves as an object of manipulation, he turns into an object.

From the point of view of Marxism, the cognitive relationship of the subject to the object is derived from the material-sensory, active relationship of a person to the object of his activity (2, p. 239). A person becomes a subject of knowledge only to the extent that he is included in social activity to transform the external world. And this means that knowledge is never carried out by a separate isolated individual, but only by such a subject who is included in collective practical activity. The object of cognition is that part of objective reality with which the subject has entered into practical and cognitive interaction and which the subject can distinguish from reality due to the fact that at this stage of the development of cognition he has such means of cognitive activity that reflect some characteristics of this object. Thus, Marxism believes that the true epistemological subject is humanity, society.

Society acts as a cognizing subject through historically expressed ways of cognitive activity and a system of accumulated knowledge. As a subject of cognition, society cannot be considered only as a simple sum of individuals engaged in cognitive activity, but as a real-life system of theoretical activity that expresses a certain stage in the development of cognition and acts in relation to the consciousness of each individual as a kind of objective essential system (3, p. 78). The individual becomes the subject of knowledge to the extent that he manages to master the world of culture created by society, to turn the achievements of mankind into his strengths and abilities. First of all, we are talking about such tools of consciousness as language, logical categories, accumulated knowledge, etc.

So, the material presented by us above shows that in the philosophy of modern times the process of cognition was comprehended as a relationship between subject and object. The result of this relationship is knowledge. However, on the question of the nature of this relationship and, above all, on the question of the source of knowledge, the positions of representatives of various trends diverged significantly. The idealistic direction of modern times saw the source of knowledge in the active creative activity of the consciousness of the subject. Materialism comprehended the process of obtaining knowledge as a result of the reflection of an object by an object (4, p. 224).

Let us dwell in more detail on the materialistic concept of cognition as a reflection of reality. Reflection is the interaction of two systems, as a result of which the features of one system are reproduced in the features of the other system. In dialectical-materialist philosophy, the property of reflection extends to the entire material world. But at each level of development of matter, it has its own specific characteristics. Us in this moment I am interested in the features of reflection in the cognitive process that occurs at the level of human consciousness. The process of cognition in such a formulation of the question takes the form of interaction between the objective world and human consciousness.

The objective world influences a person's consciousness in its own special, specific way. The result of the impact of the objective world on the consciousness of the subject are the images of consciousness. These images are snapshots, copies of real things. They are objective in their content, meaningfully reproduce the features of the reflected object. But the reproduction of the features of the reflected object in the images of consciousness occurs in accordance with the features of the reflecting system, that is, consciousness. And this means that the images of consciousness, being objective in content, are subjective in form, that is, they carry certain characteristics of the subject. The subjectivity of consciousness is connected with the fact that these images represent something ideal. K. Marx defines the ideal as follows: “The ideal is the material, transplanted into the human head and transformed in it” (4, p. 224). Images are called ideal because, although they correspond in content to objective objects and phenomena, they do not contain a single material property, that is, they are devoid of mass, extension, etc. The ideal differs from the material in the same way as the thought of this or that object and the object itself. The idea of having a million rubles and keeping it in your pocket are fundamentally different things.

2. Types of cognitive activity.

A person comprehends the world around him, masters it in various ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished. The first (genetically initial) - material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice. The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relations of subject and object are only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms. The latter, although related, are not identical to each other, each of them has its own specifics.

Classification (typology) of forms of knowledge to this day remains a complex and largely debatable problem for different philosophical trends (7, p. 56).

Cognition as a form of spiritual activity has existed in society since its inception, going through certain stages of development along with it. On each of them, the process of cognition is carried out in diverse and interconnected socio-cultural forms developed in the course of human history. Therefore, cognition as a holistic phenomenon cannot be reduced to any form, even if it is as important as scientific, which does not “cover” cognition as such. Therefore, epistemology cannot build its conclusions, drawing material for generalization from only one sphere - scientific, and even only from "highly developed natural science."

Already in the early stages of history, there was ordinary practical knowledge that provided elementary information about nature, as well as about the people themselves, their living conditions, communication, social connections, etc. The basis of this form of knowledge was the experience of everyday life, people's practices. The knowledge obtained on this basis, although strong, is chaotic and fragmented, representing a simple set of information, rules, etc. The sphere of ordinary knowledge is diverse. It includes common sense, beliefs, signs, primary generalizations of available experience, fixed in traditions, legends, edifications, etc., intuitive beliefs, premonitions, etc.

One of the historically first forms - game cognition - an important element of the activity of not only children, but also adults. During the game, the individual carries out active cognitive activity, acquires a large amount of new knowledge, absorbs the richness of culture - business games, sports games, acting, etc. knowledge, communication skills, etc. At present, the concept of a game is widely used in mathematics, economics, cybernetics, and other sciences (5, p. 249). Here, special game models and game scenarios are increasingly used, where various variants of the flow of complex processes and the solution of scientific and practical problems are played. A number of influential trends in modern philosophical and scientific thought put forward the game as an independent field of study.

important role, especially in initial stage history of mankind, played mythological knowledge. Its specificity lies in the fact that it is a fantastic reflection of reality, it is an unconsciously artistic reworking of nature and society by folk fantasy. Within the framework of mythology, certain knowledge was developed about nature, the cosmos, about the people themselves, their conditions of existence, forms of communication, etc. Recently, it has been found out (especially in the philosophy of structuralism) that mythological thinking is not just an unbridled game of fantasy, but a kind of modeling of the world, allowing to record and transfer the experience of generations.

Some modern researchers believe that in our time the importance of mythological knowledge is by no means diminished. Thus, P. Feyerabend is convinced that the achievements of myth are incomparably more significant than scientific ones: the inventors of myth, in his opinion, laid the foundation for culture, while rationalists only changed it, and not always for the better (6, p. 174).

Already within the framework of mythology, an artistic-figurative form of knowledge was born, which later received the most developed expression in art. Although it does not specifically solve cognitive problems, it contains a fairly powerful epistemological potential. Moreover, for example, in hermeneutics, as already mentioned, art is considered the most important way to reveal the truth. Although, of course, artistic activity cannot be reduced entirely to cognition, the cognitive function of art through a system of artistic images is one of the most important for it. Artistically mastering reality in its various forms (painting, music, theater, etc.), satisfying the aesthetic needs of people, art simultaneously cognizes the world, and man creates it - including according to the laws of beauty (6, p. 175). The structure of any work of art always includes, in one form or another, certain knowledge about different people and their characters, about certain countries and peoples, their customs, customs, way of life, their feelings, thoughts, etc.

One of the ancient forms of knowledge, genetically related to mythology, are philosophical and religious knowledge. The features of the latter are determined by the fact that it is due to the direct emotional form of people's attitude to the earthly forces dominating them. Being a fantastic reflection of the latter, religious ideas contain certain knowledge about reality, although often false. Sufficiently wise and deep treasury of religious and other knowledge, accumulated by people for centuries and millennia, are, for example, the Bible and the Koran. However, religion (as well as mythology) did not reproduce knowledge in a systematic and, moreover, theoretical form. It has never performed and does not perform the function of producing objective knowledge that is universal, holistic, self-valuable and evidence-based.

If religious knowledge is characterized by the combination emotional attitude to the world with faith in the supernatural, then the essence of scientific knowledge is rationality, which contains both emotions and faith as subordinate moments. But the relationship between knowledge and faith, the features of scientific knowledge will be discussed below.

Speaking about the forms of knowledge, one cannot ignore the well-known (especially in modern Western epistemology) concept of personal knowledge developed by M. Polanyi. He proceeded from the fact that knowledge is an active comprehension of knowable things, an action that requires special art and special tools. Since science is made by people, the resulting scientific activity knowledge (as well as this process itself) cannot be depersonalized. And this means that people (more precisely, scientists) with all their interests, passions, goals, etc. cannot be separated from the knowledge they produce or mechanically replaced by other people (5, p. 236).

According to Polanyi, personal knowledge necessarily presupposes intellectual dedication. It captures not only the cognizable reality, but the cognizing person herself, her interested (and not indifferent) attitude to knowledge, a personal approach to its interpretation and use, her own understanding of it in the context of specific, purely individual, changeable and, as a rule, uncontrolled associations. .

Personal knowledge is not just a collection of some statements, but also the experience of an individual. The personality lives in it “as in a garment made of its own skin”, and does not simply state its existence. Thus, in every act of cognition there is a passionate contribution of the cognizing person, and that this addition is not evidence of imperfection, but an essential element of knowledge. But such an addition does not make the latter purely subjective.

At present, although there is growing interest in the problem of the irrational, that is, what lies beyond the reach of the mind and is inaccessible to comprehension with the help of known rational means, but at the same time, the conviction that the presence of irrational layers in the human spirit gives rise to the depth from which all new meanings, ideas, creations emerge. The mutual transition of the rational and the irrational is one of the fundamental foundations of the process of cognition. However, the importance of non-rational factors should not be exaggerated, as do supporters of irrationalism.

3.Features of scientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge is ultimately necessary to guide and regulate practice. Different kinds cognitive activity perform this role in different ways, and the analysis of this difference is the first and necessary condition for identifying the features of scientific knowledge.

Describing the purpose of natural science in the life of society, K. Marx emphasized that it acts as a kind of "cunning aimed at subordinating nature to human needs, whether as an object of consumption or as a means of production" (2, p. 182). But the transformation of the world can bring success only when it is consistent with the objective laws of change and development of its objects. Therefore, the main task of science is to reveal these laws. With regard to the processes of transformation of nature, this function is performed by the natural and technical sciences. The processes of change in social objects are studied by the social sciences. Since a variety of objects, objects of nature, a person (and the states of his consciousness), subsystems of society, sign objects functioning as cultural phenomena, etc., can be transformed in activity, all of them can become subjects of scientific research. Setting to search for laws is a prerequisite for the scientific knowledge of social phenomena.

The orientation of science to the study of objects that can be included in activity (either actual or potentially, as possible objects of its future development), and their study as obeying the objective laws of functioning and development, is one of the most important features of scientific knowledge. This feature distinguishes it from other forms of human cognitive activity (1, p. 364). Thus, for example, in the process of artistic assimilation of reality, objects included in human activity are not separated from subjective factors, but are taken in a kind of "gluing" with them. Any reflection of objects of the objective world in art at the same time expresses the value attitude of a person to an object. In science, however, the features of the life activity of a person who creates knowledge, its value judgments are not directly part of the generated knowledge. Science is focused on the subject and objective study of reality. From this, of course, it does not follow that the personal moments and value orientations of a scientist do not play a role in scientific creativity and do not affect its results.

Scientific knowledge reflects the objects of nature not in the form of contemplation, but in the form of practice. The process of this reflection is due not only to the characteristics of the object under study, but also to numerous factors of a socio-cultural nature.

Considering science in its historical development, it can be found that as the type of culture changes during the transition from one socio-economic formation to another, the standards for presenting scientific knowledge, ways of seeing reality in science, and thinking styles that are formed in the context of culture and are influenced by the most its various phenomena. This impact can be represented as the inclusion of various socio-cultural factors in the process of generating scientific knowledge proper. However, the statement of the connections between the objective and the subjective in any cognitive process and the need for a comprehensive study of science in its interaction with other forms of human spiritual activity do not remove the question of the differences between science and these forms (ordinary knowledge, artistic thinking, etc.). The first and necessary among them is the objectivity and objectivity of scientific knowledge (1, p. 365).

But, studying objects that are transformed into activities, science is not limited to the knowledge of only those subject relations that can be mastered within the framework of the forms and stereotypes of activity that have historically developed at a given stage in the development of society. Science also strives to create a reserve of knowledge for future forms of practical change in the world.

Therefore, in science, not only research is carried out that serves today's practice, but also those whose results can only be used in the future. The movement of knowledge as a whole is conditioned not only by the direct demands of today's practice, but also by cognitive interests, through which the needs of society are manifested in predicting future methods and forms of practical development of the world (5, p. 211). For example, the formulation of intrascientific problems and their solution within the framework of fundamental theoretical research in physics led to the discovery of the laws of the electromagnetic field and the prediction electromagnetic waves, to the discovery of the laws of fission of atomic nuclei, the quantum laws of atomic radiation during the transition of electrons from one energy level to another, etc. All these theoretical discoveries laid the foundation for future applied engineering research and development. The introduction of the latter into production, in turn, revolutionized equipment and technology - radio-electronic equipment, nuclear power plants, laser installations, etc. appeared.

The focus of science on the study of not only objects that are transformed in today's practice, but also those that can become the subject of mass practical development in the future, is the second distinguishing feature of scientific knowledge. This feature makes it possible to distinguish between scientific and ordinary spontaneous-empirical knowledge and to derive a number of specific definitions that characterize the nature of scientific research. The embryonic forms of scientific knowledge arose in the depths and on the basis of everyday knowledge, and then spun off from it. As science develops and becomes one of the most important values of civilization, its way of thinking has an increasingly active impact on everyday consciousness. This influence develops the elements of an objective reflection of the world contained in everyday spontaneous-empirical knowledge (1, C 368).

However, there are significant differences between the ability of spontaneous-empirical knowledge to generate substantive and objective knowledge about the world and the objectivity and objectivity of scientific knowledge.

First of all, science deals with a special set of objects of reality that cannot be reduced to objects of ordinary experience.

The features of the objects of science make the means that are used in everyday knowledge insufficient for their development. Although science uses natural language, it cannot describe and study its objects only on its basis. The development by science of a special language suitable for describing objects that are unusual from the point of view of common sense is a necessary condition for scientific research. The language of science is constantly evolving as it penetrates into ever new areas of the objective world. Moreover, it has the opposite effect on everyday, natural language.

Along with an artificial, specialized language, scientific research needs a special system of special tools that, by directly influencing the object under study, make it possible to identify its possible states under conditions controlled by the subject. Hence the need for special scientific equipment (measuring instruments, instrumental installations), which allow science to experimentally study new types of objects.

Scientific equipment and the language of science are, first of all, the product of already acquired knowledge. But, just as in practice the products of labor are transformed into means of labor, so in scientific research its products are scientific knowledge, expressed in language or objectified in devices, become a means of further research, obtaining new knowledge (7, p. 171).

The features of the objects of scientific research can also explain the main features of scientific knowledge as a product of scientific activity. Their reliability can no longer be justified only by their application in production and everyday experience. Science forms specific ways of substantiating the truth of knowledge: experimental control over the knowledge obtained, the derivation of some knowledge from others, the truth of which has already been proven. The systemic nature and validity of scientific knowledge is another essential feature that distinguishes it from the products of everyday cognitive activity of people.

Finally, doing science requires special training of the cognizing subject, during which he masters the historically established means of scientific research, learns the techniques and methods of operating with these means. The inclusion of the subject in scientific activity implies, along with the mastery of means and methods, the assimilation of a certain system of value orientations and goals specific to science. As one of the main principles of scientific activity, the scientist is guided by the search for objective truth, perceiving the latter as the highest value of science.

Thus, when characterizing the nature of scientific knowledge, one can single out a system of distinguishing features of science, among which the main ones are:

Objectivity and objectivity of scientific knowledge;

Science goes beyond ordinary experience and teaches objects relatively independently of today's opportunities for their practical development (scientific knowledge always refers to a wide class of practical situations of the present and future, which is never predetermined).

All other necessary features that distinguish science from other forms of cognitive activity are derived from these main characteristics and are conditioned by them.

List of used literature.

1. Introduction to philosophy. Textbook for higher educational institutions. In 2 vols. T.2. – M.: Politizdat, 1989.

2. History of Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. A.N. Volkov. – M.: PRIOR, 1997.

3. Lektorsky V.A. Subject, object, cognition. – M.: Enlightenment, 1984.

4. Radugin A.A. Philosophy: a course of lectures. – M.: Center, 1998.

5. Philosophy: a course of lectures. / Ed. V.L. Kalashnikov. – M.: Vlados, 1998.

6. Philosophy: Textbook for university students / Ed. V.P. Kokhanovsky. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998.

7. Shvyrev V.S. Scientific knowledge as an activity. – M.: Enlightenment, 1983.

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