Sun, 12/07/2014 - 19:30 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

“Visitor” - a passing relative has access to the last level to the “highest” and can bring evil to attention. But is it really unknown?.. So, is it time to treat this gangrene! The whole result can be: harm to one, two, three persons, without any benefit to society! The deputies, even if they were saints, will soon begin to do the same...

IN AND. Steingeil - G. S. Batenkov. 25 Feb[ala 18]54

Sun, 12/07/2014 - 20:08 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Here, finally, is the manifesto on the war with France-England 4 , sadly reminiscent of the 12th year: I could not read without a strong heart movement; but may God's will be done! Hope in the Lord seems to be expressed from the depths of the soul - and will not be deceived! Judging by the newspaper articles, the defenders of the Turks themselves are not at all happy that they have gone far. In the Moscow newspaper there is a very useful article by an Englishman, LL.M. J. Moseley. God help him to bring his compatriots to reason!

Sun, 12/11/2016 - 17:02 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

TREATY OF CONSTANTINOPLE ALLIANCE 1854 - was concluded on 12.III by Great Britain, France and Turkey against Russia after the end of military preparations of the Western powers. This treaty represents one of the most important diplomatic acts that determined the balance of power in the Crimean War. Under its terms, both Western powers “agreed to provide His Imperial Majesty the Sultan with the assistance he requested,” and recognized the need to preserve the “independence” of his throne and the former borders of Turkey.

Treaty of Constantinople Union 1854, March 12

Sun, 12/11/2016 - 17:04 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

TREATY OF CONSTANTINOPLE ALLIANCE 1854 - an agreement on a military alliance of Great Britain, France and Turkey against Russia; signed in Constantinople on March 12 after the completion of preparations by the Western powers to enter the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The agreement consisted of a preamble and 5 articles.

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. March 17 .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 13:17 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

March 17

They say that an English ship covered in ice was spotted near Revel. The Emperor says that if we capture him, he will send him back to the British, since he does not want to use dishonest methods (mauvais procedes) of our only ally - the bad climate. This, of course, is very chivalrous, but I doubt whether the English gentlemen would have acted this way.

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. 18th of March .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 13:54 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

The Tsarevich is unwell; Therefore, we were not invited to evening tea, and I went to Ekaterina [Nikolaevna] Meshcherskaya. Her brother Andrei Karamzin left for the Danube in the morning. Poor Sophie was gloomy and depressed. The turning tables that predicted the war also told her that Andrei would not return. The rest of the family maintains the same range of ardent patriotism. Mme Kalerji was right there, white and smiling, and in her rhythmic and soft voice she uttered the most terrifying political heresies, which made poor Ekaterina Nikolaevna jump up with rage. My father, Mikhail Golitsyn and Mukhanov discussed the secret correspondence published by the British government that took place between it and our government shortly before the war. At that time, both governments were going to share the bear’s skin without killing it, but, just like in a fable, they failed to come to an agreement with each other...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. 21 March .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 13:55 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

21 March

Yesterday Adjutant Mirbach arrived from the Danube and brought news that our troops crossed the river in three places: in Tulcea, Macina and Galati, and that the losses were not particularly great 1) . This morning a prayer service was held in the palace church on the occasion of this first success of our troops.

Engels Friedrich. Kronstadt Fortress.

Thu, 09/26/2013 - 21:35 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Ever since Sir Charles Napier sailed into the Baltic Sea, having received from the First Lord of the Admiralty “unconditional permission to declare war,” the more optimistic part of English society has not ceased to hope that information will soon arrive about the bombardment of Kronstadt, the capture of the approaches to St. Petersburg, and maybe (who knows?) even about planting the British national flag on the sparkling spire of the Russian Admiralty.

Treaty of London of April 10, 1854

Thu, 11/13/2014 - 15:45 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

TREATY OF LONDON 1854 was signed on April 10 in London between Great Britain and France regarding the alliance and assistance of Turkey during the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The agreement supplemented the Treaty of Constantinople Union of 1854. England and France pledged to send troops to help Turkey, the required number of which was established in the additional agreement. It was envisaged to coordinate all their actions and not enter into separate negotiations with Russia.

Treaty of London 1854, April 10 (SIE, 1965)

Thu, 08/18/2016 - 15:33 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

TREATY OF LONDON 1854 - an agreement between Great Britain, France and Turkey on a defensive and offensive alliance against Russia; signed on April 10, 1854, during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, shortly after the declaration of war on Russia by Great Britain and France (March 15-16, 1854). The Treaty of London supplemented and expanded the Treaty of Constantinople of 1854. Under the Treaty of London, Great Britain and France pledged to provide assistance to Turkey and send sufficient numbers of their troops to both the European and Asian theaters of war.

Treaty of London 1854, April 10 (Vyshinsky, 1948)

Thu, 08/18/2016 - 15:32 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

TREATY OF LONDON 1854 - between England, France and Turkey on a defensive and offensive alliance against Russia; signed on IV 10, i.e. after England and France declared war on Russia (at the end of March). The Treaty of London supplemented and expanded the Treaty of Constantinople Union (see), signed by these powers on 12.III, even before the declaration of war on Russia.

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. 20 April .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 14:03 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

20 April

We read this evening at the princess's interesting article one American who pays tribute to Emperor Nicholas and Russia; he says that the loneliness of Russia and a true warrior is the best guarantee of glory and greatness for us. In general, the entire tone of the American press towards us is in complete contrast to the abuse and lies that the European press pours out on us...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. April 21 .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 14:04 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

I turned 25 today. I was at mass in the palace church, where a funeral service was taking place for the daughter of Emperor Nicholas, Alexandra, who died after a year of marriage to the Duke of Hesse-Kassel, and for the daughter of the Tsarevich, who also bore the name Alexandra and who died at seven years old from the effects of measles. This was the first child from the marriage of the Tsarevich and the Tsarevna, and the Tsarevich loved her exceptionally; She was also passionately attached to him, so that while still very little she cried bitterly when her father was absent. The Tsesarevna told me that the Grand Duke had never played with other children like he did with this child; he was her comrade and constantly carried her in his arms. He became so attached to her because her birth was a bit of a disappointment for the rest of the family, especially for Emperor Nicholas, who expected to immediately have an heir to the throne and therefore remained dissatisfied with the birth of the girl. The kind and gentle father's heart felt the need to reward the child with increased affection for the coldness that initially manifested itself towards the newborn, for whom, however, a year later the heir appeared.

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 2nd May 54

Sun, 12/07/2014 - 21:46 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

There is news here from Irkutsk. They are already writing that Nik[olai] Nik[olaevich] will travel along the Amur 5 . Koritsky tells Kolen the story of N[ikolai] N[ikolaevich], as if the sovereign, at the last meeting with Seymour 6 , told him: “Tell your queen that I have one and a half million bayonets; if I want, there will be two; If I ask, there will be three; and if I sit on a horse myself, all fifty will follow me.” Se non e vero, e ben trovato ***, the Italians say...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. May 4th .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:25 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

May 4th

Today Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna left for Stuttgart. She said goodbye to us after the prayer service. She was sad and cried a lot...

Tyutcheva A.F. At the court of two emperors. Memories. Diary, 1853-1855. (Translation by E.V. Gorye. Introduction. Article and notes by S.V. Bakhrushin. Edited by S.V. Bakhrushin and M.A. Tsyavlovsky). M., 1990, 138.

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 4 May 54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 13:34 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

If you write to Nik[olai] Iv[anovich] 5 , ask him, if he has acquaintances at the Academy of Arts, to petition for approval of the drawings of Vysotsky, a volunteer drawing teacher at the Tarskoe district school. The same story as you had with Panaev 6 . This Vysotsky, the son of a deceased political criminal, is the only support for his mother and young brothers and sisters...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. June 8 .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:30 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

The Tsarevich and the Tsarevna traveled to Kronstadt to inspect the forts, which were being strengthened in view of the approaching English and French fleets. The little grand dukes accompanied their parents; Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna also joined them. It was a wonderful day. Both sky and sea were permeated with a warm blue light, in contrast to the gray and misty darkness with which they are usually shrouded in our sad and harsh climate. The Kronstadt raid had a festive look; beautiful ships of the line rocked at anchor, but there was not a single merchant ship in the port: the British had scared everyone away. We went down to the Pavlovsky ravelin, the very front one on the sea side, walked through all the fortifications, and went down into the casemates. One of them serves as a church: you are surprised to see the throne, icons, the gospel between two cannons - symbols of peace, love and prayer among the instruments of destruction and death. Nearby there are casemates designed to accommodate the wounded...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. June 10th .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:31 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

June 10th

The weather is wonderful. We often go boating in the bay in the evenings with the Tsarevich and the Tsesarevna. Vel. book Maria Nikolaevna usually takes part in these walks. They say that the English fleet is very close, but our life has not changed at all. All the same little pleasures, the same little worries, little coquetry and little gossip, without the slightest thought about the great events looming ahead.

IN AND. Steingeil - G. S. Batenkov. 16 June 54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 13:47 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Dearest brother and faithful friend! Here's Agafya - a kind, hard-working woman who washed my clothes, always clean, beautiful, true. Now, with her husband, a carpenter, she goes to your notorious Tomsk to look for business. Your creep is very much there: help her in her search; You will give me great pleasure.

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 18th June 54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 14:42 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Judging by the reasoning that is beginning to appear in Germany, it is clear that there is a direction towards reason: this is already the beginning of a reaction. It can easily be successful if the English Ministry does not resist. However, who can now say reliably what will pour out of this boiling furnace of passions, when it will pour out and in what form it will pour out. The two cases of rashness on the Danube are extremely deplorable; at least it’s good that they don’t hide it: this will support the trust for success. Those who remember or know the 12th year will not be afraid of failures and even losses...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. June 26.

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:38 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

My father brought me today several manuscripts by Pogodin, a Moscow professor of history and an outstanding Slavophile 1) . In these notes, dealing with our foreign policy since the beginning of this century, he proves, by a simple statement of facts and their consequences, the extent to which this policy was contrary to the national interests of Russia. After the twelfth year (1812) and the success of our weapons in Europe after the expulsion of Napoleon from Russian territory, Emperor Alexander was completely blinded by his role as the savior, peacemaker and benefactor of Europe.

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. June 27th 54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 16:54 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

The most unpleasant thing: mutual disagreement between the Volkonsky and Trubetskoy families. This is something like the Pavlutskys and Rezanovs of Tobolsk. Sad and pathetic. As for Molchanov], he says that he resigned, that N[ikolai] Nik[olaevich] no longer accepted him and that they allegedly demand him to go to P[eters]burg. The cost is terrible, the exactions are terrible, but he praises Nikolai N[ikolaevich] and criticizes the oprichnina. The result is still the same: bad and bad. There is no rumor about Artsimovich. Kazimirsky 5 16 left Tomsk and should already be in Omsk. That's all...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. 27th of June .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:39 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

I still cannot understand the character of my colleague in the service, Alexandra Dolgorukaya. At first I was very attracted to her. There is something elegant and captivating in her mind and even in her appearance, insinuating and at the same time proud; affection is combined in her with a passion for witty and original ridicule. She has outbursts of insane joy, followed by moments of gloomy and gloomy despondency, a series of opposite moods that constantly arouse attention and curiosity towards her. One thing is certain: she is extremely secretive and has her own mind.

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. July 16 .

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:45 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

July 16

The Grand Duke read to us today a report received from the White Sea about the bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery by English ships; The bombardment lasted nine hours without causing the slightest harm to the monastery: not a single monk was wounded and even the nests of swallows nestled under the battlements of the outer fence were not damaged. The enemy was forced to leave without achieving any success. It is unknown whether the attack has since been resumed 1) .

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. July 22 [18]54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 19:32 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Now I’ll tell you about the circumstances that actually concern me. My wife’s brother, on a private matter, came to Petersburg 12 years later, saw his sister, joyfully embraced his two sons, one of whom emerged as a candidate from the university - this is the one who undertook the publication of portraits of university professors , another from the Arakchi [eevsky] cadet corps, and fell into the insatiable jaws of cholera. This news was extremely sad for me. He was an honest and kind man and loved me as his benefactor, because I put him on the road “at the right time.” And he was, however, an old man at 63 years old; but it’s all a pity, although I hope not to see him for a long time, or - but this is under the impenetrable veil of Isis...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. July 22.

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:48 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Today is the crown princess's name day. Yesterday evening we went to the farm to bring our congratulations to her, since at court it is customary to congratulate her on the eve of the day itself. The Tsesarevna showed us the wonderful gifts she had received, and by the way, the icon of the Mother of God with the Savior, painted by Neff, which delighted me. The expressions on both faces are divine and beautiful to perfection. The little Grand Dukes Nicholas and Alexander presented their mother with views of the farm that they themselves had drawn, and pretty Vladimir, who still could not draw, brought her a basket of eggs laid by his own chickens. Royal family everyone gathered in Sergievka for tea with Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna, who was also the birthday girl. It was a wonderful evening, and the Sergievka palace, with its terraces decorated with exotic plants, statues and vases of the most exquisite taste, had an absolutely magical appearance. However, for my part, I enjoy these types of views a little...

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 26 Aug 54

Mon, 12/08/2014 - 19:53 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

In St. Petersburg, with me, with my relatives, that is, according to the latest news, everything is still fine as of July; but the son-in-law was dying: for ambition the situation is most unfavorable. Vladimir didn’t go on the hike: it was cancelled. Probably, after settling with Austrian diplomacy, never like now with Jewish diplomacy, through Prussian-Biderman diplomacy...

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 31 Aug 54

Tue, 12/09/2014 - 12:54 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Now I’m home from work and found your pleasant lines on my bulletin board. Shemyakin promised to deliver the book tomorrow morning; but alas! the stenographer is no longer there: will he have a job in the next world; this, in turn, we will find out. He died yesterday at 11 o'clock in the afternoon 1 . I was at the litiya in the evening And then with the Right Reverend, who, at parting, blessed me with a huge prosphora and then went to the deceased, without a call, to pay, as he put it, his Christian duty - to serve the litiya. Today he leaves and travels to Turinsk, where he intends to serve on Sunday; and on the way back near Tyumen he will consecrate the church; from where to you, then to Ishim and back to Tobolsk...

IN AND. Steingeil - I. I. Pushchin. 5th September 54.

Tue, 12/09/2014 - 13:10 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Yesterday morning I went to visit the desperately ill, our good Ferdinand Bogdanovich, and went to see Dmitry Ivanovich. I found him shaving and already finishing the operation. He was getting ready to go to the Council. I noticed something strange about him. “Look,” he said, “my cheek seems to be swollen.” - “Yes, noticeable.” He finished and, without letting go of the razor, repeated the same question. I said: “Yes, you speak as if you have something behind your cheek. That's right, we caught a cold; rub well with salted vodka and rinse with water and water.”...

Tyutcheva A.F. Diary. September 7.

Mon, 06/03/2013 - 15:52 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

September 7

My thoughts are carried away with longing to Crimea. According to foreign newspapers, enemy fleets and landing forces have been standing in front of Sevastopol for several days now, but there is no accurate information on this yet 1) .

1) On September 1/13, the Allies occupied Yevpatoria with a small detachment. On September 2/14, the allied troops landed between Yevpatoria and the village of Kaptugay.

IN AND. Steingeil - G. S. Batenkov. 13 Sep[Nov 18]54

Tue, 12/09/2014 - 13:23 -- Vyacheslav Rumyantsev

Ugh! What a burden on the conscience, my dear brother! How much - the whole mass of the spill, the Irtysh and Tobol together, was carried away into Northern Ocean, and some, perhaps, are now falling again in raindrops on us, so that we can return to the Irtysh, and your three letters lie before our eyes - without an answer! Only the certainty of your trust in my feelings can ease this burden. Your second letter, containing a most pleasant, cordial conversation, gave me special comfort; I wanted to respond also cordially - and, according to this desire, I put it off until I was in a free state of spirit; but where can you wait for him under depressing circumstances? I’ll somehow take advantage of the stormy hours that linger in my modest corner...

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War was inevitable. Why?
“This is a war between cretins and scoundrels,” F.I. said about the Crimean War. Tyutchev.
Too harsh? Maybe. But if we take into account the fact that for the sake of the ambitions of some others died, then Tyutchev’s statement will be accurate.

Crimean War (1853-1856) also sometimes called Eastern War is a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition consisting of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents seas, as well as in Kamchatka. But the fighting reached its greatest intensity in Crimea, which is why the war got its name Crimean.

I. Aivazovsky "Review of the Black Sea Fleet in 1849"

Causes of the war

Each side that took part in the war had its own claims and reasons for the military conflict.

Russian empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; strengthening influence on the Balkan Peninsula.

The painting by I. Aivazovsky depicts participants in the upcoming war:

Nicholas I intensely peers at the formation of ships. He is being watched by the fleet commander, the stocky Admiral M.P. Lazarev and his students Kornilov (chief of fleet staff, behind Lazarev’s right shoulder), Nakhimov (behind his left shoulder) and Istomin (far right).

Ottoman Empire: wanted the suppression of the national liberation movement in the Balkans; return of Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

England, France: hoped undermine Russia's international authority and weaken its position in the Middle East; to tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, Crimea, the Caucasus, and Finland; strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline; in addition, the struggle of Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued.

These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the British plans to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem; Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.

Progress of hostilities

First stage of the war (November 1853 - April 1854) - these are Russian-Turkish military actions.

Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, first of all, in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior to the rifled weapons of Western European armies.

The artillery is also outdated. The Russian navy was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by steam-powered ships. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide the site of military operations with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, or human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.

The Russian-Turkish War was fought with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries.

As a result of the Battle of Sinop, the Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was destroyed within a few hours.

During the four-hour battle in Sinop Bay(Turkish naval base) the enemy lost a dozen ships and over 3 thousand people killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. Only 20-gun fast steamer "Taif" with an English adviser on board, he was able to escape from the bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet was captured. The losses of Nakhimov's squadron amounted to 37 people killed and 216 wounded. Some ships left the battle with severe damage, but none were sunk . The Battle of Sinop is written in golden letters in the history of the Russian fleet.

I. Aivazovsky "Battle of Sinop"

This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

Second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - Anglo-French intervention in Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was to capture Crimea and Sevastopol, a Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, Russian troops lost. By order of Commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

After the battle on the river. Alma the enemy besieged Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. In front of the entrance to the roadstead - on peninsulas and capes - there were powerful forts. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk before entering the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea. More than 20 thousand sailors went ashore and stood in line with the soldiers. 2 thousand ship guns were also transported here. Eight bastions and many other fortifications were built around the city. They used earth, boards, household utensils - anything that could stop the bullets.

But there were not enough ordinary shovels and picks for the work. Theft flourished in the army. During the war years this turned out to be a disaster. In this regard, a famous episode comes to mind. Nicholas I, indignant at all sorts of abuses and thefts discovered almost everywhere, in a conversation with the heir to the throne (the future Emperor Alexander II), shared the discovery he made and shocked him: “It seems that in all of Russia only two people do not steal - you and me.”

Defense of Sevastopol

Admiral-led defense Kornilova V.A., Nakhimova P.S. and Istomina V.I. lasted 349 days with a 30,000-strong garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombings, as a result of which part of the city, the Ship Side, was practically destroyed.

On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. The army and navy took part in it. 120 guns fired at the city from land, and 1,340 ship guns fired at the city from the sea. During the shelling, over 50 thousand shells were fired at the city. This fiery tornado was supposed to destroy the fortifications and suppress the will of their defenders to resist. However, the Russians responded with accurate fire from 268 guns. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the enormous superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was severely damaged (8 ships were sent for repairs) and was forced to retreat. After this, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in bombing the city. The city's fortifications were not seriously damaged. The decisive and skillful rebuff of the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which had hoped to take the city with little bloodshed. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also moral victory. Their joy was darkened by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was led by Nakhimov, who was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855 for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol.F. Rubo. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (fragment)

A. Roubo. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (fragment)

In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. Attempts by the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. to pull back the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle of Inkerman, Evpatoria and Chernaya Rechka). The actions of the field army in Crimea did little to help the heroic defenders of Sevastopol. The enemy ring gradually tightened around the city. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The enemy offensive ended here. Subsequent military operations in Crimea, as well as in other regions of the country, were not of decisive importance for the allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress Kars. During the Crimean War, the forces of both sides were undermined. But the selfless courage of the Sevastopol residents could not compensate for the shortcomings in weapons and supplies.

On August 27, 1855, French troops stormed the southern part of the city and captured the height dominating the city - Malakhov Kurgan.

The loss of the Malakhov Kurgan decided the fate of Sevastopol. On this day, the city’s defenders lost about 13 thousand people, or more than a quarter of the entire garrison. On the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern. The battles for Sevastopol are over. The Allies did not achieve his surrender. Russian armed forces in Crimea remained intact and were ready for further fighting. They numbered 115 thousand people. against 150 thousand people. Anglo-Franco-Sardinians. The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War.

F. Roubo. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (fragment of "The Battle for the Gervais Battery")

Military operations in the Caucasus

In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Parisian world

At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing: Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia came under the supreme authority of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich

K. Bryullov "Portrait of Kornilov on board the brig "Themistocles"

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich (1806 - October 17, 1854, Sevastopol), Russian vice admiral. Since 1849, chief of staff, since 1851, in fact, commander of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Crimean War one of the leaders heroic defense Sevastopol. Mortally wounded on Malakhov Kurgan.

He was born on February 1, 1806 in the family estate of Ivanovsky, Tver province. His father was a naval officer. Following in his father's footsteps, Kornilov Jr. entered the Naval Cadet Corps in 1821 and graduated two years later, becoming a midshipman. Richly gifted by nature, an ardent and enthusiastic young man was burdened by coastal combat service in the Guards naval crew. He could not stand the routine of parade parades and drills at the end of the reign of Alexander I and was expelled from the fleet “for lack of vigor for the front.” In 1827, at the request of his father, he was allowed to return to the fleet. Kornilov was assigned to M. Lazarev’s ship Azov, which had just been built and arrived from Arkhangelsk, and from that time his real naval service began.

Kornilov became a participant in the famous Battle of Navarino against the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. In this battle (October 8, 1827), the crew of the Azov, carrying the flagship flag, showed the highest valor and was the first of the ships of the Russian fleet to earn the stern St. George flag. Lieutenant Nakhimov and midshipman Istomin fought next to Kornilov.

On October 20, 1853, Russia declared a state of war with Turkey. On the same day, Admiral Menshikov, appointed commander-in-chief of the naval and ground forces in the Crimea, sent Kornilov with a detachment of ships to reconnoitre the enemy with permission to “take and destroy Turkish warships wherever they are encountered.” Having reached the Bosphorus Strait and not finding the enemy, Kornilov sent two ships to reinforce Nakhimov’s squadron sailing along the Anatolian coast, sent the rest to Sevastopol, and he himself transferred to the steam frigate “Vladimir” and stayed at the Bosphorus. The next day, November 5, Vladimir discovered the armed Turkish ship Pervaz-Bahri and entered into battle with it. This was the first battle of steam ships in the history of naval art, and the crew of the Vladimir, led by Lieutenant Commander G. Butakov, won a convincing victory. The Turkish ship was captured and towed to Sevastopol, where, after repairs, it became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name “Kornilov”.

At the council of flagships and commanders, which decided the fate of the Black Sea Fleet, Kornilov advocated for the ships to go to sea to fight the enemy for the last time. However, by a majority vote of the council members, it was decided to scuttle the fleet, excluding steam frigates, in Sevastopol Bay and thereby block the enemy’s breakthrough to the city from the sea. On September 2, 1854, the sinking of the sailing fleet began. The head of the city's defense directed all the guns and personnel of the lost ships to the bastions.
On the eve of the siege of Sevastopol, Kornilov said: “Let them first tell the troops the word of God, and then I will convey to them the word of the king.” And around the city there was a religious procession with banners, icons, chants and prayers. Only after this did the famous Kornilov call sound: “The sea is behind us, the enemy is ahead, remember: do not trust retreat!”
On September 13, the city was declared under siege, and Kornilov involved the population of Sevastopol in the construction of fortifications. The garrisons of the southern and northern sides were increased, from where the main enemy attacks were expected. On October 5, the enemy launched the first massive bombardment of the city from land and sea. On this day, while detouring the defensive formations of V.A. Kornilov was mortally wounded in the head on Malakhov Kurgan. “Defend Sevastopol,” were his last words. Nicholas I, in his letter to Kornilov’s widow, indicated: “Russia will not forget these words, and your children will pass on a name that is venerable in the history of the Russian fleet.”
After Kornilov’s death, a will was found in his casket addressed to his wife and children. “I bequeath to the children,” the father wrote, “to the boys, having once chosen to serve the sovereign, not to change it, but to make every effort to make it useful to society... For daughters to follow their mother in everything.” Vladimir Alekseevich was buried in the crypt of the Naval Cathedral of St. Vladimir next to his teacher, Admiral Lazarev. Soon Nakhimov and Istomin will take their place next to them.

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov was born on June 23, 1802 on the Gorodok estate in the Smolensk province into the family of a nobleman, retired major Stepan Mikhailovich Nakhimov. Of the eleven children, five were boys, and all of them became sailors; at the same time, Pavel’s younger brother, Sergei, finished his service as a vice admiral, director of the Naval Cadet Corps, in which all five brothers studied in their youth. But Paul surpassed everyone with his naval glory.

He graduated from the Naval Corps and, among the best midshipmen on the brig Phoenix, participated in a sea voyage to the shores of Sweden and Denmark. Upon completion of the corps with the rank of midshipman, he was appointed to the 2nd naval crew of the St. Petersburg port.

Tirelessly training the crew of the Navarin and polishing his combat skills, Nakhimov skillfully led the ship during the action of Lazarev’s squadron in the blockade of the Dardanelles in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828 - 1829. For excellent service he was awarded the Order of St. Anne, 2nd degree. When the squadron returned to Kronstadt in May 1830, Rear Admiral Lazarev wrote in the certification of the Navarin commander: “An excellent sea captain who knows his business.”

In 1832, Pavel Stepanovich was appointed commander of the frigate Pallada, built at the Okhtenskaya shipyard, on which the squadron included Vice Admiral F. Bellingshausen he sailed in the Baltic. In 1834, at the request of Lazarev, then already the chief commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Nakhimov was transferred to Sevastopol. He was appointed commander of the battleship Silistria, and eleven years of his further service were spent on this battleship. Devoting all his strength to working with the crew, instilling in his subordinates a love of maritime affairs, Pavel Stepanovich made the Silistria an exemplary ship, and his name popular in the Black Sea Fleet. He put the naval training of the crew first, was strict and demanding of his subordinates, but had a kind heart, open to sympathy and manifestations of maritime brotherhood. Lazarev often flew his flag on the Silistria, setting the battleship as an example for the entire fleet.

Nakhimov’s military talents and naval skill were most clearly demonstrated during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Even on the eve of Russia's clash with the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, the first squadron of the Black Sea Fleet under his command vigilantly cruised between Sevastopol and the Bosphorus. In October 1853, Russia declared war on Turkey, and the squadron commander emphasized in his order: “If we meet an enemy superior to us in strength, I will attack him, being absolutely sure that each of us will do our part. In early November, Nakhimov learned that the Turkish squadron under the command of Osman Pasha, heading to the shores of the Caucasus, left the Bosphorus and, due to a storm, entered Sinop Bay. The commander of the Russian squadron had 8 ships and 720 guns at his disposal, while Osman Pasha had 16 ships with 510 guns protected by coastal batteries. Without waiting for the steam frigates, which Vice Admiral Kornilov led to reinforce the Russian squadron, Nakhimov decided to attack the enemy, relying primarily on the combat and moral qualities of the Russian sailors.

For the victory at Sinop Nicholas I awarded Vice Admiral Nakhimov the Order of St. George, 2nd degree, writing in a personal rescript: “By the extermination of the Turkish squadron, you decorated the chronicle of the Russian fleet with a new victory, which will forever remain memorable in naval history.” Assessing the Battle of Sinop, Vice Admiral Kornilov wrote: “The battle is glorious, higher than Chesma and Navarino... Hurray, Nakhimov! Lazarev rejoices at his student!”

Convinced that Turkey was not able to wage a successful fight against Russia, England and France sent their fleets into the Black Sea. Commander-in-Chief A.S. Menshikov did not dare to prevent this, and the further course of events led to the epic Sevastopol defense of 1854 - 1855. In September 1854, Nakhimov had to agree with the decision of the council of flagships and commanders to scuttle the Black Sea squadron in Sevastopol Bay in order to make it difficult for the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet to enter it. Having moved from sea to land, Nakhimov voluntarily entered into subordination to Kornilov, who led the defense of Sevastopol. Seniority in age and superiority in military merits did not prevent Nakhimov, who recognized Kornilov’s intelligence and character, from maintaining good relations with him, based on a mutual ardent desire to defend the southern stronghold of Russia.

In the spring of 1855, the second and third assaults on Sevastopol were heroically repulsed. In March, Nicholas I granted Nakhimov the rank of admiral for military distinction. In May, the valiant naval commander was awarded a lifelong lease, but Pavel Stepanovich was annoyed: “What do I need it for? It would be better if they sent me bombs.”

On June 6, the enemy began active assault operations for the fourth time through massive bombings and attacks. On June 28, on the eve of the day of Saints Peter and Paul, Nakhimov once again went to the front bastions to support and inspire the defenders of the city. On Malakhov Kurgan, he visited the bastion where Kornilov died, despite warnings about strong rifle fire, he decided to climb the parapet banquet, and then a well-aimed enemy bullet hit him in the temple. Without regaining consciousness, Pavel Stepanovich died two days later.

Admiral Nakhimov was buried in Sevastopol in the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, next to the graves of Lazarev, Kornilov and Istomin. In front of a large crowd of people, his coffin was carried by admirals and generals, a guard of honor stood seventeen in a row from the army battalions and all the crews of the Black Sea Fleet, the beat of drums and a solemn prayer service sounded, and a cannon salute thundered. Pavel Stepanovich’s coffin was overshadowed by two admiral’s flags and a third, priceless one - the stern flag of the battleship Empress Maria, the flagship of the Sinop victory, torn by cannonballs.

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov

Famous doctor, surgeon, participant in the defense of Sevastopol in 1855. N.I. Pirogov’s contribution to medicine and science is invaluable. He created anatomical atlases that were exemplary in accuracy. N.I. Pirogov was the first to come up with the idea of plastic surgery, put forward the idea of bone grafting, used anesthesia in military field surgery, was the first to apply a plaster cast in the field, and suggested the existence of pathogenic microorganisms that cause suppuration of wounds. Already at that time, N.I. Pirogov called for abandoning early amputations for gunshot wounds of the limbs with bone damage. The mask he designed for ether anesthesia is still used in medicine today. Pirogov was one of the founders of the sisters of mercy service. All his discoveries and achievements saved the lives of thousands of people. He refused to help anyone and devoted his entire life to boundless service to people.

Dasha Alexandrova (Sevastopol)

She was sixteen and a half when the Crimean War began. She lost her mother early, and her father, a sailor, defended Sevastopol. Dasha ran to the port every day, trying to find out something about her father. In the chaos that reigned around, this turned out to be impossible. Desperate, Dasha decided that she should try to help the fighters with at least something - and, along with everyone else, her father. She exchanged her cow - the only thing she had of value - for a decrepit horse and cart, got vinegar and old rags, and joined the wagon train with other women. Other women cooked and did laundry for the soldiers. And Dasha turned her cart into a dressing station.

When the position of the army worsened, many women left the convoy and Sevastopol and went north to safe areas. Dasha stayed. She found an old abandoned house, cleaned it out and turned it into a hospital. Then she unharnessed her horse from the cart and walked with it all day long to the front line and back, taking out two wounded for each “walk.”

In November 1953, in the battle of Sinop, sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov, her father, died. Dasha found out about this much later...

A rumor about a girl who takes the wounded from the battlefield and treats them medical care, spread throughout the warring Crimea. And soon Dasha had associates. True, these girls did not risk going to the front line, like Dasha, but they completely took upon themselves the dressing and care of the wounded.

And then Pirogov found Dasha, who embarrassed the girl with expressions of his sincere admiration and admiration for her feat.

Dasha Mikhailova and her assistants joined the “exaltation of the cross.” Learned professional wound treatment.

The emperor’s youngest sons, Nicholas and Mikhail, came to Crimea “to raise the spirit of the Russian army.” They also wrote to their father that in the fighting Sevastopol “a girl named Daria is taking care of the wounded and sick, and is doing exemplary efforts.” Nicholas I ordered her to receive a gold medal on the Vladimir ribbon with the inscription “For zeal” and 500 rubles in silver. According to their status, the gold medal “For Diligence” was awarded to those who already had three medals - silver. So we can assume that the Emperor highly appreciated Dasha’s feat.

The exact date of death and resting place of Daria Lavrentievna Mikhailova’s ashes have not yet been discovered by researchers.

Reasons for Russia's defeat

Economic backwardness of Russia;
Political isolation of Russia;
Russia lacks a steam fleet;
Poor supply of the army;
Absence railways.

Over three years, Russia lost 500 thousand people killed, wounded and captured. The allies also suffered great losses: about 250 thousand killed, wounded and died from disease. As a result of the war, Russia lost its positions in the Middle East to France and England. Its prestige in the international arena was badly undermined. On March 13, 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, under the terms of which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to minimum and fortifications were destroyed. Similar demands were made to Turkey. In addition, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, was supposed to return the Kars fortress, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.

YEAR OF THE TIGER They say that those born this year are characterized by ardor, passion, enthusiasm, and recklessness

FORM AND CONTENT CHANGE

In order to strengthen the officer corps, the length of service in non-commissioned officer ranks for promotion to officers has been halved for all categories of volunteers.
It is allowed to accept young nobles into regiments as volunteers (with the rights of cadets), who, after training directly in the regiment, receive officer ranks. This procedure is established only for wartime.
For the first time, officer braided shoulder straps appeared on a field overcoat with one gap for senior officers, two for staff officers and zigzags for generals with stars according to rank.
The recruitment set is divided into three types: ordinary (age 22-35, height not less than 2 arshins 4 inches), reinforced (age not determined, height not less than 2 arshins 3.5 inches), extraordinary (height not less than 2 arshins 3 inches).

TELEGRAPHS ARE MULTIPLE

Electromagnetic telegraphs were installed between St. Petersburg on the one hand and Kronstadt, Warsaw and Moscow on the other.

LIGHT FINANCIAL STRAIN

Measures have been taken to limit the exchange of credit notes for silver.

THEY DON'T FORGET ABOUT FAITH

On the right bull of the Annunciation Bridge in St. Petersburg, in the gap between the wings of the drawbridge, the chapel of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker was built according to the design of the architect A. I. STAKSHNEIDER. Next year the bridge will be renamed Nikolaevsky.

The Holy Cross community of sisters of mercy was founded to care for the wounded on the battlefield. Grand Duchess ELENA PAVLOVNA, Baroness E. F. RADEN and N. I. PIROGOV actively contributed to its creation. He will stand at the head of the community during the Sevastopol defense. The maid of honor of Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna EDITA FEDOROVNA RADEN, born in 1825, led all organizational work. She would die in 1885.

RUSSIAN FLEET

A.I. BUTAKOV moved the Aral shipyard to fort No. 1 (Kazalinsk).

SEX LIFE OF STATE STALLIONS

Over the course of 10 years, 225,295 mares were bred to state-owned stallions, of which 81,769 belonged to landowners, 40,208 to people of various ranks, and 102,718 to peasants.

WALK THROUGH MOSCOW

In front of the Bolshoi Kamenny Bridge in Moscow there is a booth with a guard pacing around it. As night falls, the watchman calls out to passers-by with the words: “Who’s coming?” To this you must answer: “Everyman!” If there is no answer, the peace officer has the right to stop the silent person and question him about who he is and where he is heading. Such cases usually end well - with the award of five or two kopecks from the offender. On special days, the guard puts on a dress uniform - a semi-tailcoat made of gray soldier's cloth and the same trousers, a huge shako - and picks up a halberd.

ON THE WORLD ARENA...

GREAT BRITAIN. In March, the Manchester Chartist Convention (Labor Parliament) was opened.

SPAIN. The revolution has begun. It will last until 1856.

INTERNATIONAL TREATIES. Treaties between Japan and Western powers are concluded. This process will continue for four years.

Having achieved the conclusion of the Shimoda Treaty, Japan entered into joint ownership of Sakhalin with Russia.

WARS. In March, England and France, having sent their squadrons into the Black Sea, declared war on Russia and openly sided with Turkey.

In August, the superior forces of the Anglo-French fleet twice tried to land troops in Petropavlovsk, but were repelled by big losses.

In September, an Allied army of more than 60,000, including British, French and Turkish troops, landed near Yevpatoria. The commander-in-chief of the Russian army, the elderly Prince A.S. MENSHIKOV, concentrated his troops in the Bakhchisarai region in order to maintain contact with the internal provinces of the country. Only the garrison of the fortress remained in Sevastopol (about 45 thousand soldiers and officers). The defense was led by admirals VLADIMIR ALEXEEVICH KORNILOV, PAVEL STEPANOVICH NAKHIMOV, VLADIMIR IVANOVICH ISTOMINS, who died on the Sevastopol bastions. The construction of the fortifications was carried out by military engineer E.I. TOTLEBEN. Part of the Russian fleet was sunk at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, naval guns were removed and placed on fortifications, sailors joined the garrison of the fortress. The siege began in October.

USA. Two new states were formed - Kansas and Nebraska. The question of the spread of slavery in them is left to the discretion of the inhabitants of the states. The civil war began under the leadership of J. Brown and J. Montgomery, that is, the Missouri Compromise was abolished. The Republican Party was created for this reason.

UPRISING. Eureka Rebellion - gold miners rebelled at the gold mines in Ballarat (Colony of Victoria).

MEANWHILE...

ANUCHIN DMITRY entered the second grade of the Larinsky gymnasium.
BUKHAREV ALEXANDER MATVEEVICH, born in 1824, was born into the family of a deacon in Tver province, after graduating from Tver Seminary he entered the Moscow Theological Academy, which he graduated from at the age of 22. Shortly before graduating from the Academy, Bukharev became a monk - not without hesitation. At the Moscow Theological Academy, Bukharev was a professor (in the department of Holy Scripture), but from this year he took the department of dogmatics at the Kazan Academy and at the same time became an inspector of the Academy.
BER. The BERA expedition visited Sarepta, Kamyshin, Astrakhan, Novopetrovsky, on the islands and at the mouth of the Ural River, went again to Astrakhan, then to the western shore of the Caspian Sea, the Black Market at the mouth of the Terek and the Astrakhan salt lakes.
VASILCHIKOV V.I., born in 1820 Since October, he has been acting as chief of staff of the Sevastopol garrison.
DOBROLYUBOV N. A., born in 1836, at the end of the year he became the head of a circle of students, where they read foreign publications, subscribe to newspapers and magazines, and publish a handwritten newspaper “Rumors”. Next year he will write in his diary: “It’s as if I was deliberately called by fate to the great cause of a revolution!..”
KERN FEDOR SERGEEVICH, captain 2nd rank, commands the frigate "Kulevcha".
KROPOTKIN. The wife's two sisters moved into the KROPOTKIN family. They had a house and a vineyard in Sevastopol, but because of the Crimean War they were left homeless and propertyless. When the Allies landed in Crimea, the residents of Sevastopol were told that there was nothing to fear, but after the defeat at Chernaya Rechka they were ordered to leave as soon as possible. There were not enough horses, and the roads were clogged with troops moving south. The youngest of the sisters, a thirty-year-old girl, smokes cigarettes one after another and picturesquely talks about the horrors of the road.
MAKSIMOVICH K.I. has been studying the scientifically unknown Amur region and the Ussuri region since July. This year he took an excursion along the coast of the Tatar Strait to the mouth of the Amur (Nikolaevsk) - Mariinsk - Lake Kizi.
SMIRNOV N.P. graduated from the university as the second candidate (the first was B.N. CHICHERIN, who would become a professor at Moscow University) and entered the Civil Chamber as a scribe for seven rubles a month.
L. N. TOLSTOY writes in his diary on June 15: “Exactly three months of idleness and a life with which I cannot be satisfied... For the last time I tell myself: if three days pass during which I do nothing for the benefit of people, I'll kill myself."
TYUTCHEV. Poems by F. I. TYUTCHEV, previously published (in 1826) and remaining almost unnoticed, were published as an addition to Sovremennik and aroused enthusiastic praise from critics. In the future, Tyutchev will enjoy fame as a poet of the predominantly Slavophile camp.
USHINSKY KONSTANTIN DMITRIEVICH, born in 1824, from this year got the opportunity to return to pedagogical activity as a teacher at the Gatchina Orphan Institute. In 1859 he was appointed inspector of the Smolny Institute.
KHRULEV S. A., born in 1807, has been at the disposal of Prince A. S. MENSHIKOV since December. He will be the chairman of the committee for testing new bullets.
CHEKHOV P. E. married EVGENIYA YAKOVLEVNA MOROZOVA. He will have six children: ALEXANDER, NIKOLAY, ANTON, IVAN, MARIA AND MICHAEL.

THIS YEAR WILL BE BORN:

DOROVATOVSKY SERGEY PAVLOVICH, future agronomist-social activist, publisher. He would die in 1921;
ELPATIEVSKY SERGEY YAKOVLEVICH, future writer and doctor. He would die in 1933;
IGNATOV VASILY NIKOLAEVICH, future populist. He would die in 1885;
LAUR ALEXANDER ALEKSEEVICH, future homeopathic doctor, playwright and journalist. He would die in 1901;
MATTERN EMILY EMILIEVICH, future Moscow justice of the peace and translator of dramatic works. He would die in 1938;
future novelist, humorist and playwright MYASNITSKY. He would die in 1911;
PAVLOV ALEXEY PETROVICH, in Moscow, in the family of second lieutenant P. A. Pavlov, future geologist, academician, professor at Moscow University, founder of the Moscow school of geologists. He would die in 1929;
PREOBRAZHENSKY ALEXANDER LAVRENTIEVICH, in the Tula province in the family of a priest, future Metropolitan of Yarolavsk and Rostov Agafangel. He would die in 1928;
SAVINA MARIA GAVRILOVNA, future actress. She would perform on stage from the age of eight, become one of the organizers and chairmen of the Russian Theater Society and die in 1915;
SERGEENKO PETER ALEXEEVICH, future fiction writer and publicist. He would die in 1930;
CHERTKOV VLADIMIR GRIGORIEVICH. He would die in 1936.

WHO WILL DIE THIS YEAR:

GOLUBINSKY FEDOR ALEXANDROVICH, born in 1797, teacher of philosophy at the Moscow Theological Academy, priest;
KARAMZIN ANDREY NIKOLAEVICH, born in 1814 A cavalry detachment under his command fell into a Turkish outpost and was completely exterminated;
KORNILOV VLADIMIR ALEXEEVICH, born in 1806, vice admiral who led the defense of Sevastopol. On October 5, he was mortally wounded by a cannonball on the Malakhov Kurgan in a battery of nine guns.
LAVAL EKATERINA IVANOVNA, born 1800, in Siberia, wife of Prince Sergei Petrovich Trubetskoy, sentenced to hard labor, countess, who followed her husband;
PROKHOROV TIMOFEY, manufacturer who brought Trekhgorka worldwide fame, one of the calico kings of Russia.

In March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. The coalition won.

Goals of the countries participating in the war

Russian empire

— revision of the regime of the Black Sea straits; Strengthening influence on the Balkan Peninsula.

Ottoman Empire

— suppression of the national liberation movement in the Balkans;

- return of Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

England, France

— undermine Russia’s international authority,
— weaken its position in the Middle East,
- to tear away from it the territories of Poland, Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland;
— spreading its economic and political influence in the Middle East;
— Louis Bonaparte, the French emperor, dreamed of strengthening his power through a victorious war.

Causes of the war consisted of contradictions between European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening Ottoman Empire, which was engulfed in the national liberation movement.

Reason for war: a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who will be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem.

June 1853 - entry of Russian troops into Moldova and Wallachia.

October 20, 1853 - Nicholas I signed the Manifesto on the beginning of the war with Turkey. In turn, Türkiye declared war on Russia in October 1853.

Participants in the Crimean War and the forces of the parties

Russian Empire - Ottoman Empire,
England, France;
Hostile neutrality towards Russia on the part of Austria and Prussia.

What were the weaknesses Russian army on the eve of the Crimean War?

recruiting system for army formation;

the lack of a capable general staff, which led to mistakes in the development of strategic plans for waging war;

the absence of an extensive railway system and the dispersion of troops throughout the country made it impossible to quickly transfer troops to the theater of military operations and led to low maneuverability of troops.

poor preparation of ground forces for combat operations;

poor technical equipment of the army (smooth-bore guns hit a target up to 100-150 m; and the opponents had rifled guns that hit a target up to 800 m - 1880 units per 42 thousand soldiers), led to the need to conduct close combat, which increased the vulnerability of soldiers the enemy has more advanced long-range weapons.

backwardness in the equipment of the navy (out of 21 warships of the Black Sea squadron, 7 are steam, the rest are sailing, while England and France have steam);

corruption of officials.

Thus, Russia lagged behind its rivals in military-technical terms. England and France surpassed Russia in the scale and quality of weapons, primarily in the field of naval forces, small arms and means of communication, and economic potential.

Progress of hostilities

The second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - Anglo-French intervention in Crimea, attacks by warships of Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and Kamchatka.

Military operations at the first stage of the Crimean War took place at the mouth of the Danube River, on the Black Sea and in southern Georgia. Quite quickly, the superiority of Russia was determined, inflicting a number of defeats on the Ottoman army on the Danube and in Transcaucasia.

November 18, 1853 - the Battle of Sinop took place. The Black Sea squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855) defeated the Turkish fleet under the command of Osman Pasha in Sinop Bay.

The Turkish squadron was heading to the Caucasus coast for a large landing. Along the way, she took refuge from bad weather in Sinop Bay. Here it was blocked and destroyed by the Russian fleet on November 16.

Turkey had no chance of winning.

Why was the Turkish fleet defeated in this battle?

the lack of capable admirals among the Turks;

the location of the Turkish ships was such that they could meet our ships with only one side;

the Turks themselves shot through and crippled three of their frigates and one corvette;

Turkish artillery was weaker than ours;

Turkish ships blocked Russian ships from the coastal batteries of Sinop;

Nakhimov’s courage and experience;

the skill of Russian sailors and the skillful interaction of their ships.

What were the results of the Battle of Sinop?

March 1854— England and France declared war on Russia. They decided to support Turkey and oppose Russia.

The bulk of the fighting took place on the Crimean peninsula. But besides this, a bloody war was fought in Kamchatka, the Caucasus, and even on the coasts of the Baltic and Barents seas. At the very beginning of the war, the siege of Sevastopol was carried out by an airborne assault from England and France, during which famous military leaders died - Kornilov, Istomin, Nakhimov. The siege lasted exactly a year, after which Sevastopol was irrevocably captured by Anglo-French troops. Along with the defeats in the Crimea, our troops won a victory in the Caucasus, destroying the Turkish squadron and capturing the Kars fortress. This large-scale war required numerous material and human resources from Russian Empire, which were devastated by 1856. On top of everything else, Nicholas I was afraid to fight with all of Europe, since Prussia was already on the verge of entering the war. The emperor had to give up his positions and sign a peace treaty.

March 18, 1856 The Treaty of Paris was signed. According to its terms:

Russia lost the southern part of Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube,
Those taken during hostilities by the allies were returned to RussiaSevastopol, Evpatoria and other port cities in Crimea in exchange for Karsand its region occupied by Russian troops.
Russia and the Ottoman Empire were prohibited from having on the Black Seamilitary fleet, as well as military fortresses and arsenals on its shores.
The Black Sea straits were declared closed to military vessels of allcountries for a time of peace.
Freedom of navigation of ships of all countries on the Danube was established.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War.

- weakness of the military industry,

- bad army support,

- poor condition of roads,

— errors in the development of strategic plans.

Results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

- the army is drained of blood,
- the treasury is empty,
- the economy is upset,
- as a result, all the shortcomings of management became visible, all the backwardness fromWestern countries militarily, economically, socially,
Russia's authority at the international level was significantly weakened, which from now on had to be won anew.

The war had one thingpositive consequence for Russia: it became obvious that fundamental changes are needed.

Because of this, the autocracy had to begin to carry outpeasant and other reforms - in the sphere of justice, finance, local government, education and the press, in military affairs.

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. During times ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. I was not able to be in action even once, but I thank God that I saw these people and live in this glorious time.
Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common phenomenon in international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered into another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended in the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of Russia's role in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic policy, which led to many problems. Despite victories in the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the reasons, course, main results and historical meaning in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question

By the Eastern Question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern Question, which became the basis for the future war, are as follows:

The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region to the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further increased the desire for revenge.
Belonging to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these Russian demands.
The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, of Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russian interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of Western European countries (Britain, France, and Austria) not to allow Russia into the Balkans, as well as to block its access to the straits. For this reason, countries were ready to provide support to Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic issues were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Temple of Bethlehem in Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the management of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation among the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a reason to attack Turkey. Russia demanded the transfer of the temple Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Türkiye refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work; European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Thus began, in short, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called the Eastern War.

Progress of the war and main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

October 1853 – April 1854. During these six months, the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without direct intervention from other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations and also marks a turning point in the course of the war. The Allied forces were technically superior to the Russians, which was the reason for the changes during the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be identified: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's look at them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and inspired hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinop naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

At the beginning of April 1854, the Ottoman Empire sent a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which quickly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of Crimea. However, the city survived several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver precise strikes on the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The Allies were forced to retreat towards Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fighting on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed over to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry of England and France into the war complicated the Russian offensive. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted, and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, Austria also entered the war against Russia on this front, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand) landed near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the army leadership give priority to the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea.

Fighting in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuryuk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still a success for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June–November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the Karsu fortress, so that the Allies would send some troops to this region, thereby slightly weakening the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the “peace” signed later, the Kars fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as shown peace talks, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, French-English troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived an 11-month siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the Allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat was key and served as an impetus for ending the war. From the end of 1855, intensive negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at “unblocking” Sevastopol:

Battle of Alma (September 1854).
Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria (February 1855).
Battle of the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, few know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

Petropavlovsk defense. The battle, which took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on one side and the Russian ones on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was a consequence of Britain's victory over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in eastern Asia by displacing Russia. In total, the Allied troops launched two assaults, both of which ended in failure. Russia withstood the Petropavlovsk defense.
Arctic company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also launched a bombardment of the Solovetsky Fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

Nicholas 1 died in February 1855. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented there by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed on March 6, 1856, as a result of which the Crimean War was ended.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris were as follows:

Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Principality of Moldova, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
On the Åland Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was prohibited from building military and/or defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand military personnel. The deaths on the Austrian side are unknown, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia compared to European countries, especially in terms of the economy (the completion of the industrial revolution, the construction of railways, the use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, the desire for revenge had been brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.